Articles | Volume 13, issue 1
https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-13-373-2022
© Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Special issue:
https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-13-373-2022
© Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Review
| 
16 Feb 2022
Review |
| 16 Feb 2022
| 16 Feb 2022
Salinity dynamics of the Baltic Sea
GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel, Kiel, Germany
Kai Myrberg
Finnish Environment Institute/Marine Research Centre Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
Marine Research Institute, Klaipeda University, Klaipeda, Lithuania
Piia Post
Institute of Physics, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
Irina Chubarenko
Shirshov Institute of Oceanology RAS, Moscow, Russia
Inga Dailidiene
Faculty of Marine Technology and Natural Sciences, Klaipeda University, Klaipeda, Lithuania
Hans-Harald Hinrichsen
GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel, Kiel, Germany
Karin Hüssy
National Institute of Aquatic Resources, Technical University of
Denmark, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
Taavi Liblik
Department of Marine Systems, Tallinn University of Technology,
Tallinn, Estonia
H. E. Markus Meier
Leibniz Institute for Baltic Sea Research Warnemünde, Rostock,
Germany
Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute, Norrköping,
Sweden
Urmas Lips
Department of Marine Systems, Tallinn University of Technology,
Tallinn, Estonia
Tatiana Bukanova
Shirshov Institute of Oceanology RAS, Moscow, Russia
Related authors
H. E. Markus Meier, Madline Kniebusch, Christian Dieterich, Matthias Gröger, Eduardo Zorita, Ragnar Elmgren, Kai Myrberg, Markus P. Ahola, Alena Bartosova, Erik Bonsdorff, Florian Börgel, Rene Capell, Ida Carlén, Thomas Carlund, Jacob Carstensen, Ole B. Christensen, Volker Dierschke, Claudia Frauen, Morten Frederiksen, Elie Gaget, Anders Galatius, Jari J. Haapala, Antti Halkka, Gustaf Hugelius, Birgit Hünicke, Jaak Jaagus, Mart Jüssi, Jukka Käyhkö, Nina Kirchner, Erik Kjellström, Karol Kulinski, Andreas Lehmann, Göran Lindström, Wilhelm May, Paul A. Miller, Volker Mohrholz, Bärbel Müller-Karulis, Diego Pavón-Jordán, Markus Quante, Marcus Reckermann, Anna Rutgersson, Oleg P. Savchuk, Martin Stendel, Laura Tuomi, Markku Viitasalo, Ralf Weisse, and Wenyan Zhang
Earth Syst. Dynam., 13, 457–593, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-13-457-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-13-457-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Based on the Baltic Earth Assessment Reports of this thematic issue in Earth System Dynamics and recent peer-reviewed literature, current knowledge about the effects of global warming on past and future changes in the climate of the Baltic Sea region is summarised and assessed. The study is an update of the Second Assessment of Climate Change (BACC II) published in 2015 and focuses on the atmosphere, land, cryosphere, ocean, sediments, and the terrestrial and marine biosphere.
This article is included in the Encyclopedia of Geosciences
Kai Salm, Germo Väli, Taavi Liblik, and Urmas Lips
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-4082, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-4082, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We show that forcing-dependent presence of submesoscale processes is detected by glider observations and high-resolution numerical simulation. Peak of submesoscale variations was observed at the base of the upper mixed layer in spring and in the thermocline in summer. Coastal upwellings and topography-related instabilities of frontal currents were the likely drivers of submesoscale processes and subduction that transport surface waters and tracers below the thermocline.
This article is included in the Encyclopedia of Geosciences
José A. Jiménez, Gundula Winter, Antonio Bonaduce, Michael Depuydt, Giulia Galluccio, Bart van den Hurk, H. E. Markus Meier, Nadia Pinardi, Lavinia G. Pomarico, and Natalia Vazquez Riveiros
State Planet, 3-slre1, 3, https://doi.org/10.5194/sp-3-slre1-3-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/sp-3-slre1-3-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The Knowledge Hub on Sea Level Rise (SLR) has done a scoping study involving stakeholders from government and academia to identify gaps and needs in SLR information, impacts, and policies across Europe. Gaps in regional SLR projections and uncertainties were found, while concerns were raised about shoreline erosion and emerging problems like saltwater intrusion and ineffective adaptation plans. The need for improved communication to make better decisions on SLR adaptation was highlighted.
This article is included in the Encyclopedia of Geosciences
Angélique Melet, Roderik van de Wal, Angel Amores, Arne Arns, Alisée A. Chaigneau, Irina Dinu, Ivan D. Haigh, Tim H. J. Hermans, Piero Lionello, Marta Marcos, H. E. Markus Meier, Benoit Meyssignac, Matthew D. Palmer, Ronja Reese, Matthew J. R. Simpson, and Aimée B. A. Slangen
State Planet, 3-slre1, 4, https://doi.org/10.5194/sp-3-slre1-4-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/sp-3-slre1-4-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The EU Knowledge Hub on Sea Level Rise’s Assessment Report strives to synthesize the current scientific knowledge on sea level rise and its impacts across local, national, and EU scales to support evidence-based policy and decision-making, primarily targeting coastal areas. This paper complements IPCC reports by documenting the state of knowledge of observed and 21st century projected changes in mean and extreme sea levels with more regional information for EU seas as scoped with stakeholders.
This article is included in the Encyclopedia of Geosciences
Silvie Lainela, Erik Jacobs, Stella-Theresa Luik, Gregor Rehder, and Urmas Lips
Biogeosciences, 21, 4495–4519, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-4495-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-4495-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We evaluate the variability of carbon dioxide and methane in the surface layer of the north-eastern basins of the Baltic Sea in 2018. We show that the shallower coastal areas have considerably higher spatial variability and seasonal amplitude of surface layer pCO2 and cCH4 than measured in the offshore areas of the Baltic Sea. Despite this high variability, caused mostly by coastal physical processes, the average annual air–sea CO2 fluxes differed only marginally between the sub-basins.
This article is included in the Encyclopedia of Geosciences
Taavi Liblik, Daniel Rak, Enriko Siht, Germo Väli, Johannes Karstensen, Laura Tuomi, Louise C. Biddle, Madis-Jaak Lilover, Māris Skudra, Michael Naumann, Urmas Lips, and Volker Mohrholz
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2272, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-2272, 2024
Preprint archived
Short summary
Short summary
Eight current meters were deployed to the seafloor across the Baltic to enhance knowledge about circulation and currents. The experiment was complemented by autonomous vehicles. Stable circulation patterns were observed at the sea when weather was steady. Strong and quite persistent currents were observed at the key passage for the deep-water renewal of the Northern Baltic Sea. Deep water renewal mostly occurs during spring and summer periods in the northern Baltic Sea.
This article is included in the Encyclopedia of Geosciences
Sven Karsten, Hagen Radtke, Matthias Gröger, Ha T. M. Ho-Hagemann, Hossein Mashayekh, Thomas Neumann, and H. E. Markus Meier
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 1689–1708, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-1689-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-1689-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This paper describes the development of a regional Earth System Model for the Baltic Sea region. In contrast to conventional coupling approaches, the presented model includes a flux calculator operating on a common exchange grid. This approach automatically ensures a locally consistent treatment of fluxes and simplifies the exchange of model components. The presented model can be used for various scientific questions, such as studies of natural variability and ocean–atmosphere interactions.
This article is included in the Encyclopedia of Geosciences
Elina Miettunen, Laura Tuomi, Antti Westerlund, Hedi Kanarik, and Kai Myrberg
Ocean Sci., 20, 69–83, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-20-69-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-20-69-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We studied circulation and transports in the Archipelago Sea (in the Baltic Sea) with a high-resolution hydrodynamic model. Transport dynamics show different variabilities in the north and south, so no single transect can represent transport through the whole area in all cases. The net transport in the surface layer is southward and follows the alignment of the deeper channels. In the lower layer, the net transport is southward in the northern part of the area and northward in the southern part.
This article is included in the Encyclopedia of Geosciences
Roberto Cremonini, Tanel Voormansik, Piia Post, and Dmitri Moisseev
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 16, 2943–2956, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-16-2943-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-16-2943-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Extreme rainfall for a specific location is commonly evaluated when designing stormwater management systems. This study investigates the use of quantitative precipitation estimations (QPEs) based on polarimetric weather radar data, without rain gauge corrections, to estimate 1 h rainfall total maxima in Italy and Estonia. We show that dual-polarization weather radar provides reliable QPEs and effective estimations of return periods for extreme rainfall in climatologically homogeneous regions.
This article is included in the Encyclopedia of Geosciences
H. E. Markus Meier, Marcus Reckermann, Joakim Langner, Ben Smith, and Ira Didenkulova
Earth Syst. Dynam., 14, 519–531, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-14-519-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-14-519-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The Baltic Earth Assessment Reports summarise the current state of knowledge on Earth system science in the Baltic Sea region. The 10 review articles focus on the regional water, biogeochemical and carbon cycles; extremes and natural hazards; sea-level dynamics and coastal erosion; marine ecosystems; coupled Earth system models; scenario simulations for the regional atmosphere and the Baltic Sea; and climate change and impacts of human use. Some highlights of the results are presented here.
This article is included in the Encyclopedia of Geosciences
Matthias Gröger, Manja Placke, H. E. Markus Meier, Florian Börgel, Sandra-Esther Brunnabend, Cyril Dutheil, Ulf Gräwe, Magnus Hieronymus, Thomas Neumann, Hagen Radtke, Semjon Schimanke, Jian Su, and Germo Väli
Geosci. Model Dev., 15, 8613–8638, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-8613-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-8613-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Comparisons of oceanographic climate data from different models often suffer from different model setups, forcing fields, and output of variables. This paper provides a protocol to harmonize these elements to set up multidecadal simulations for the Baltic Sea, a marginal sea in Europe. First results are shown from six different model simulations from four different model platforms. Topical studies for upwelling, marine heat waves, and stratification are also assessed.
This article is included in the Encyclopedia of Geosciences
Stella-Theresa Stoicescu, Jaan Laanemets, Taavi Liblik, Māris Skudra, Oliver Samlas, Inga Lips, and Urmas Lips
Biogeosciences, 19, 2903–2920, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-2903-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-2903-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Coastal basins with high input of nutrients often suffer from oxygen deficiency. In summer 2018, the extent of oxygen depletion was exceptional in the Gulf of Riga. We analyzed observational data and found that extensive oxygen deficiency appeared since the water layer close to the seabed, where oxygen is consumed, was separated from the surface layer. The problem worsens if similar conditions restricting vertical transport of oxygen occur more frequently in the future.
This article is included in the Encyclopedia of Geosciences
Taavi Liblik, Germo Väli, Kai Salm, Jaan Laanemets, Madis-Jaak Lilover, and Urmas Lips
Ocean Sci., 18, 857–879, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-18-857-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-18-857-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
An extensive measurement campaign and numerical simulations were conducted in the central Baltic Sea. The persistent circulation patterns were detected in steady weather conditions. The patterns included various circulation features. A coastal boundary current was observed along the eastern coast. The deep layer current towards the north was detected as well. This current is an important deeper limb of the overturning circulation of the Baltic Sea. The circulation regime has an annual cycle.
This article is included in the Encyclopedia of Geosciences
Karol Kuliński, Gregor Rehder, Eero Asmala, Alena Bartosova, Jacob Carstensen, Bo Gustafsson, Per O. J. Hall, Christoph Humborg, Tom Jilbert, Klaus Jürgens, H. E. Markus Meier, Bärbel Müller-Karulis, Michael Naumann, Jørgen E. Olesen, Oleg Savchuk, Andreas Schramm, Caroline P. Slomp, Mikhail Sofiev, Anna Sobek, Beata Szymczycha, and Emma Undeman
Earth Syst. Dynam., 13, 633–685, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-13-633-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-13-633-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The paper covers the aspects related to changes in carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus (C, N, P) external loads; their transformations in the coastal zone; changes in organic matter production (eutrophication) and remineralization (oxygen availability); and the role of sediments in burial and turnover of C, N, and P. Furthermore, this paper also focuses on changes in the marine CO2 system, the structure of the microbial community, and the role of contaminants for biogeochemical processes.
This article is included in the Encyclopedia of Geosciences
Matthias Gröger, Christian Dieterich, Cyril Dutheil, H. E. Markus Meier, and Dmitry V. Sein
Earth Syst. Dynam., 13, 613–631, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-13-613-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-13-613-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Atmospheric rivers transport high amounts of water from subtropical regions to Europe. They are an important driver of heavy precipitation and flooding. Their response to a warmer future climate in Europe has so far been assessed only by global climate models. In this study, we apply for the first time a high-resolution regional climate model that allow to better resolve and understand the fate of atmospheric rivers over Europe.
This article is included in the Encyclopedia of Geosciences
H. E. Markus Meier, Madline Kniebusch, Christian Dieterich, Matthias Gröger, Eduardo Zorita, Ragnar Elmgren, Kai Myrberg, Markus P. Ahola, Alena Bartosova, Erik Bonsdorff, Florian Börgel, Rene Capell, Ida Carlén, Thomas Carlund, Jacob Carstensen, Ole B. Christensen, Volker Dierschke, Claudia Frauen, Morten Frederiksen, Elie Gaget, Anders Galatius, Jari J. Haapala, Antti Halkka, Gustaf Hugelius, Birgit Hünicke, Jaak Jaagus, Mart Jüssi, Jukka Käyhkö, Nina Kirchner, Erik Kjellström, Karol Kulinski, Andreas Lehmann, Göran Lindström, Wilhelm May, Paul A. Miller, Volker Mohrholz, Bärbel Müller-Karulis, Diego Pavón-Jordán, Markus Quante, Marcus Reckermann, Anna Rutgersson, Oleg P. Savchuk, Martin Stendel, Laura Tuomi, Markku Viitasalo, Ralf Weisse, and Wenyan Zhang
Earth Syst. Dynam., 13, 457–593, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-13-457-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-13-457-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Based on the Baltic Earth Assessment Reports of this thematic issue in Earth System Dynamics and recent peer-reviewed literature, current knowledge about the effects of global warming on past and future changes in the climate of the Baltic Sea region is summarised and assessed. The study is an update of the Second Assessment of Climate Change (BACC II) published in 2015 and focuses on the atmosphere, land, cryosphere, ocean, sediments, and the terrestrial and marine biosphere.
This article is included in the Encyclopedia of Geosciences
H. E. Markus Meier, Christian Dieterich, Matthias Gröger, Cyril Dutheil, Florian Börgel, Kseniia Safonova, Ole B. Christensen, and Erik Kjellström
Earth Syst. Dynam., 13, 159–199, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-13-159-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-13-159-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
In addition to environmental pressures such as eutrophication, overfishing and contaminants, climate change is believed to have an important impact on the marine environment in the future, and marine management should consider the related risks. Hence, we have compared and assessed available scenario simulations for the Baltic Sea and found considerable uncertainties of the projections caused by the underlying assumptions and model biases, in particular for the water and biogeochemical cycles.
This article is included in the Encyclopedia of Geosciences
Ole Bøssing Christensen, Erik Kjellström, Christian Dieterich, Matthias Gröger, and Hans Eberhard Markus Meier
Earth Syst. Dynam., 13, 133–157, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-13-133-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-13-133-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The Baltic Sea Region is very sensitive to climate change, whose impacts could easily exacerbate biodiversity stress from society and eutrophication of the Baltic Sea. Therefore, there has been a focus on estimations of future climate change and its impacts in recent research. Models show a strong warming, in particular in the north in winter. Precipitation is projected to increase in the whole region apart from the south during summer. New results improve estimates of future climate change.
This article is included in the Encyclopedia of Geosciences
Marcus Reckermann, Anders Omstedt, Tarmo Soomere, Juris Aigars, Naveed Akhtar, Magdalena Bełdowska, Jacek Bełdowski, Tom Cronin, Michał Czub, Margit Eero, Kari Petri Hyytiäinen, Jukka-Pekka Jalkanen, Anders Kiessling, Erik Kjellström, Karol Kuliński, Xiaoli Guo Larsén, Michelle McCrackin, H. E. Markus Meier, Sonja Oberbeckmann, Kevin Parnell, Cristian Pons-Seres de Brauwer, Anneli Poska, Jarkko Saarinen, Beata Szymczycha, Emma Undeman, Anders Wörman, and Eduardo Zorita
Earth Syst. Dynam., 13, 1–80, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-13-1-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-13-1-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
As part of the Baltic Earth Assessment Reports (BEAR), we present an inventory and discussion of different human-induced factors and processes affecting the environment of the Baltic Sea region and their interrelations. Some are naturally occurring and modified by human activities, others are completely human-induced, and they are all interrelated to different degrees. The findings from this study can largely be transferred to other comparable marginal and coastal seas in the world.
This article is included in the Encyclopedia of Geosciences
Jenny Hieronymus, Kari Eilola, Malin Olofsson, Inga Hense, H. E. Markus Meier, and Elin Almroth-Rosell
Biogeosciences, 18, 6213–6227, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-6213-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-6213-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Dense blooms of cyanobacteria occur every summer in the Baltic Proper and can add to eutrophication by their ability to turn nitrogen gas into dissolved inorganic nitrogen. Being able to correctly estimate the size of this nitrogen fixation is important for management purposes. In this work, we find that the life cycle of cyanobacteria plays an important role in capturing the seasonality of the blooms as well as the size of nitrogen fixation in our ocean model.
This article is included in the Encyclopedia of Geosciences
Matthias Gröger, Christian Dieterich, Jari Haapala, Ha Thi Minh Ho-Hagemann, Stefan Hagemann, Jaromir Jakacki, Wilhelm May, H. E. Markus Meier, Paul A. Miller, Anna Rutgersson, and Lichuan Wu
Earth Syst. Dynam., 12, 939–973, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-12-939-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-12-939-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Regional climate studies are typically pursued by single Earth system component models (e.g., ocean models and atmosphere models). These models are driven by prescribed data which hamper the simulation of feedbacks between Earth system components. To overcome this, models were developed that interactively couple model components and allow an adequate simulation of Earth system interactions important for climate. This article reviews recent developments of such models for the Baltic Sea region.
This article is included in the Encyclopedia of Geosciences
Ralf Weisse, Inga Dailidienė, Birgit Hünicke, Kimmo Kahma, Kristine Madsen, Anders Omstedt, Kevin Parnell, Tilo Schöne, Tarmo Soomere, Wenyan Zhang, and Eduardo Zorita
Earth Syst. Dynam., 12, 871–898, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-12-871-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-12-871-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
The study is part of the thematic Baltic Earth Assessment Reports – a series of review papers summarizing the knowledge around major Baltic Earth science topics. It concentrates on sea level dynamics and coastal erosion (its variability and change). Many of the driving processes are relevant in the Baltic Sea. Contributions vary over short distances and across timescales. Progress and research gaps are described in both understanding details in the region and in extending general concepts.
This article is included in the Encyclopedia of Geosciences
Tanel Voormansik, Roberto Cremonini, Piia Post, and Dmitri Moisseev
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 1245–1258, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-1245-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-1245-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
A long set of operational polarimetric weather radar rainfall accumulations from Estonia and Italy are generated and investigated. Results show that the combined product of specific differential phase and horizontal reflectivity yields the best results when compared to rain gauge measurements. The specific differential-phase-based product overestimates weak precipitation, and the horizontal-reflectivity-based product underestimates heavy rainfall in all analysed accumulation periods.
This article is included in the Encyclopedia of Geosciences
Taavi Liblik, Germo Väli, Inga Lips, Madis-Jaak Lilover, Villu Kikas, and Jaan Laanemets
Ocean Sci., 16, 1475–1490, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-16-1475-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-16-1475-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
The upper mixed layer, shallower than the depth of the euphotic zone, is one of the preconditions for enhanced primary production in the ocean. In the Baltic Sea, the general understanding is that the upper mixed layer is much deeper in winter. In this study, we demonstrate that wintertime shallow stratification and an elevated phytoplankton biomass proxy, chlorophyll, are common in the Gulf of Finland. Stratification is invoked by the westward flow of riverine water forced by an easterly wind.
This article is included in the Encyclopedia of Geosciences
Piia Post and Margit Aun
Adv. Sci. Res., 17, 219–225, https://doi.org/10.5194/asr-17-219-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/asr-17-219-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
The satellite-based fractional cloud cover and cloud top height from CLARA-A2 data record has been used to analyse trends in the Baltic Sea region, 1982–2015. Cloud observations from the Tartu-Tõravere meteorological station were used as reference data for the same period. A downward trend in fractional cloud cover in March over the 1982–2015 period was found. For cloud top heights summer and spring regional averages showed opposite signs of the trend: for June positive and for March negative.
This article is included in the Encyclopedia of Geosciences
Cited articles
Alenius, P., Myrberg, K., and Nekrasov, A.: The physical oceanography of the
Gulf of Finland: a review, Boreal Environ. Res., 3, 97–125, 1998.
Alenius, P., Nekrasov, A., and Myrberg, K.: Variability of the baroclinic
Rossby radius in the Gulf of Finland, Cont. Shelf Res., 23, 563–573,
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-4343(03)00004-9, 2003.
Almén, A.-K., Glippa, O., Pettersson, H., Alenius, P., and
Engström-Öst, J.: Changes in wintertime pH and hydrography of the
Gulf of Finland (Baltic Sea) with focus on depth layers, Environ. Monit.
Assess., 189, 147, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-017-5840-7, 2017.
Andrejev, O., Myrberg, K., Alenius, P., and Lundberg, P. A.: Mean circulation and water exchange in the Gulf of Finland-a study based on three-dimensional modelling, http://www.borenv.net/BER/pdfs/ber9/ber9-001.pdf (last access: 22 November 2018), 2004a.
Andrejev, O., Myrberg, K. and Lundberg, P. A.: Age and renewal time of water
masses in a semi-enclosed basin – Application to the Gulf of Finland, Tellus A, 56, 548–558, 2004b.
Arneborg, L.: Comment on “Influence of sea level rise on the dynamics of
salt inflows in the Baltic Sea” by R. Hordoir, L. Axell, U. Löptien, H. Dietze, and I. Kuznetsov, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 121, 2035–2040, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JC011451, 2016.
BACC I Author Team: Assessment of Climate Change for the Baltic Sea Basin,
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, ISBN 978-3-540-72785-9, 2008.
BACC II Author Team: Second assessment of climate change for the Baltic Sea
Basin, in: Regional Climate Studies, Springer, Cham,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16006-1, 2015.
Barry, R. G. and Carleton, A. M.: Synoptic and dynamic climatology, Routledge, 640 pp., ISBN 9780415031165, 2013.
Bergström, S. and Carlsson, B.: River runoff to the Baltic Sea: 1950–1990, Ambio, 23, 280–287, 1994.
Berzinsh, V.: Hydrology, in: Ecosystem of the Gulf of Riga Between 1920
and 1990, edited by: Ojaveer, E., Estonian Acad. Publ., Tallinn, 8–31, ISBN 9789985500651, 1995.
Bleil, M., Oeberst, R., and Urrutia, P.: Seasonal maturity development of
Baltic cod in differentspawning areas: importance of the Arkona Sea for the
summer spawning stock, J. Appl. Ichthyol., 25, 10–17, 2009.
Blöschl, G., Hall, J., Parajka, J.,Perdigao, R. A., Merz, B., Arheimer,
B., Aronica, G. T., Bilibashi, A., Bonacci, O., Borga, M., and Canjevac, I.:
Changing climate chifts timing of European floods, Science, 357, 588–590, 2017.
Börgel, F., Frauen, C., Neumann, T., Schimanke, S., and Meier, H. E. M.:
Impact of the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation on Baltic Sea variability,
Geophys. Res. Lett., 45, 9880–9888, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018GL078943, 2018.
Cassou, C., Terray, L., Hurrell, J. W., and Deser, C.: North Atlantic Winter Climate Regimes: Spatial Asymmetry, Stationarity with Time, and Oceanic Forcing, J. Climate, 17, 1055–1068, 2004.
Chubarenko, I. and Stepanova, N.: Cold Intermediate Layer of the Baltic Sea:
hypothesis of the formation of its core, Prog. Oceanogr., 167, 1–10, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2018.06.012, 2018.
Chubarenko, I. P., Demchenko, N. Y., Esiukova, E. E., Lobchuk, O. I., Karmanov, K. V., Pilipchuk, V. A., Isachenko, I. A., Kuleshov, A. F., Chugaevich, V. Y., Stepanova, N. B., Krechik, V. A., and Bagaev, A. V.:: Formation of spring thermocline in coastal zone of the South-Eastern Baltic Sea on the base of field measurement data 2010–2013, Oceanology, 57, 632–638, https://doi.org/10.1134/S000143701705006X, 2017a.
Chubarenko, B., Domnin, D., Navrotskaya, S., Stont, Z., Chechko, V., Bobykina, V., Pilipchuk, V., Karmanov, K., Domnina, A., Bukanova, T., Topchaya, V., and Kileso, A.: Transboundary Lagoons of the
Baltic Sea (Chapter 6), in: The Diversity of Russian Estuaries and Lagoons Exposed to Human Influence, Estuaries of the World, edited by: Kosyan, R., Springer International Publishing, Switzerland, 149–191,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-43392-9_6, 2017b.
Cyberski, J., Wrúblewski, A., and Stewart, J.: Riverine water inflows and the Baltic Sea water volume 1901–1990, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 4, 1–11, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-4-1-2000, 2000.
Dailidiene, I., Baudler, H., Chubarenko, B., and Navrotskaya, S.: Long term
water level and surface temperature changes in the lagoons of the southern
and eastern Baltic, Oceanologia, 53, 293–308, 2011.
Dangendorf, S., Hay, C., Calafat, F. M., Marcos, M., Piecuch, C. G., Berk, K., and Jensen, J.: Persistent acceleration in global sea -level rise since the 1960s, Nat. Clim. Change, 9, 705–710, 2019.
Döös, K., Meier, H. E. M., and Döscher, R.: The Baltic haline
conveyor belt or the overturning circulation and mixing in the Baltic, Ambio,
33, 261–266, 2004.
Eilola, K. and Stigebrandt, A.: Spreading of juvenile freshwater in the Baltic Proper, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 27795–27807, 1998.
Elken, J. and Matthäus, W.: Physical system description, in: Assessment of climate change for the Baltic Sea Basin, edited by: The BACC Author Team, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, 379–386, ISBN 978-3-540-72785-9, 2008.
Elken, J., Raudsepp, U., and Lips, U.: On the estuarine transport reversal in deep layers of the Gulf of Finland, J. Sea Res. 49, 267–274,
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1385-1101(03)00018-2, 2003.
Elken, J., Raudsepp, U., Laanemets, J., Passenko, J., Maljutenko, I., Pärn, O., and Keevallik, S.: Increased frequency of wintertime stratification collapse events in the Gulf of Finland since the 1990s, J. Mar. Syst., 129, 47–55, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2013.04.015, 2014.
Elken, J., Lehmann, A., and Myrberg, K.: Recent Change – Marine Circulation
and Stratification, in: Second Assessment of Climate Change for the Baltic
Sea Basin, edited by: BACC II Author team, Springer, Cham, Heidelberg, New York, Dordrecht, London, 501 pp., https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16006-1, 2015.
Feser, F., Barcikowska, M., Krueger, O., Schenk, F., Weisse, R., and Xia, L.: Storminess over the North Atlantic and northwestern Europe – A review, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 141, 350–382, 2015.
Fischer, H. and Matthäus, W.: The importance of the Drogden Sill in the
Sound for major Baltic inflows, J. Mar. Syst., 9, 137–157, 1996.
Fonselius, S. and Valderrama, J.: One hundred years of hydrographic measurements in the Baltic Sea, J. Sea Res., 49, 229–241, 2003.
Friedland, R., Schernewski, G., Gräwe, U., Greipsland, I., Palazzo, D., and Pastuszak, M.: Managing Eutrophication in the Szczecin (Oder)
Lagoon-Development, Present State and Future Perspectives, Front. Mar. Sci.,
5, 521, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2018.00521, 2019.
Graham, L. P.: Modeling runoff to the Baltic Sea, Ambio, 27, 328–334, 1999.
Gräwe, U., Naumann, M., Mohrholz, V., and Burchard, H.: Anatomizing one of the largest saltwater inflows into the Baltic Sea in December 2014, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 120, 7676–7697, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JC011269, 2015.
Gustafsson, E. and Omstedt, A.: Sensitivity of Baltic Sea deep water salinity and oxygen concentration to variations in physical forcing, Boreal Environ. Res., 14, 18–30, 2009.
Hansson, D. C., Eriksson, C., Omstedt, A., and Chen, D.: Reconstruction of river runoff to the Baltic Sea, AD 1500–1995, Int. J. Climatol., 31, 696–703, https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.2097, 2011.
HELCOM: Environment of the Baltic Sea area 1994–1998, Baltic Sea Environment
Proceedings No. 82 B, Helsinki Commission, Helsinki, Finland, p. 215, ISNN 0357-2994, https://helcom.fi/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/BSEP82b.pdf (last access: 14 February 2022), 2002.
HELCOM: http://helcom.fi/baltic-sea-trends/environment-factsheets, last access: 14 February 2022.
Hemmer-Hansen, J., Hüssy, K., Baktoft, H., Huwer, B., Bekkevold, D., Haslob, H., Herrmann, J., Hinrichsen, H., Krumme, U., Mosegaard, H., Eg Nielsen, E., Reusch, T. B. H., Storr-Paulsen, M., Velasco, A., von Dewitz,
B., Dierking, J., and Eero, M.: Genetic analyses reveal complex dynamics
within a marine fish management area, Evol. Appl., 12, 830–844, 2019.
Hinrichsen, H.-H., Lehmann, A., Petereit, C., and Schmidt, J.: Correlation
analysis of Baltic Sea winter water mass formation and its impact on secondary and tertiary production, Oceanologia, 49, 381–395, 2007a.
Hinrichsen, H.-H., Voss, R., Wieland, K., Köster, F., Andersen, K. H., and Margonski, P.: Spatial and temporal heterogeneity of the cod spawning
environment in the Bornholm Basin, Baltic Sea, Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser., 345,
245–254, 2007b.
Hinrichsen, H.-H., Lehmann, A., Petereit, C., Nissling, A., Ustups, D., Bergström, U., and Hüssy, K.: Spawning areas of eastern Baltic cod
revisited: Using hydrodynamic modelling to reveal spawning habitat suitability, egg survival probability, and connectivity patterns, Prog.
Oceanogr., 143, 13–25, 2016a.
Hinrichsen, H. H., von Dewitz, B., Dierking, J. , Haslob, H., Makarchouk, A., Petereit, C., and Voss, R.: Oxygen depletion in coastal seas and the effective spawning stock biomass of an exploited fish species, Royal Soc. Open Sci., 3, 150338, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.150338, 2016b.
Höflich, K. and Lehmann, A.: Decadal variations in barotropic inflow
characteristics and their relationship with Baltic Sea salinity variability,
Conference proceedings No. 13, International Baltic Earth Secretariat Publications, 25–26, https://www.baltic-earth.eu/imperia/md/assets/baltic_earth/baltic_earth/baltic_earth/ibesp_no13_jun2018_helsingorconf.pdf (last access: 14 February 2022), 2018.
Holtermann, P. L., Prien, R., Naumann, M., Mohrholz, V., and Umlauf, L.:
Deepwater dynamics and mixing processes during a major inflow event in the
central Baltic Sea, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 122, 6648–6667, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017jc013050, 2017.
Hordoir, R., Axell, L., Löptien, U., Dietze, H., and Kuznetsov, I.: Influence of sea level rise on the dynamics of salt inflows in the Baltic Sea, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 120, 6653–6668, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014JC010642, 2015.
Hünicke, B., Zorita, E., Soomere, T., Madsen , K.S. Johansson, M., and
Suusaar, Ü.: Recent Change – Sea level and wind waves, in: Second
Assessment of Climate Change for the Baltic Sea Basin, edited by: BACC II Author team, Springer, Cham, Heidelberg, New York, Dordrecht, London, 501 pp., https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16006-1, 2015.
Hurrel, J. W.: Transient eddy forcing of the rotational flow during northern
winter, J. Atmos. Sci., 52, 2286–2301, 1995.
Hurrel, J. W. and Deser, C.: North Atlantic climate variability: the role of
the North Atlantic Oscillation, J. Mar. Syst., 78, 28–41, 2009.
Hüssy, K.: Review of western Baltic cod (Gadus morhua) recruitment dynamics, ICES J. Mar. Sci., 68, 1459–1471, 2011.
Hüssy, K., Hinrichsen, H.-H., Eero, M., Mosegaard, H., Hemmer-Hansen, J.
Lehmann, A., and Lundgaard, L. S.: Spatio-temporal trends in stock mixing of
eastern and western Baltic cod in the Arkona Basin and the implications for
recruitment, ICES J. Mar. Sci., 73, 293–303, 2015.
ICES: https://www.ices.dk/Pages/default.aspx, last access: 14 February 2022.
IPCC: Summary for Policymakers, in: Climate Change and Land: an IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems, edited by: Shukla, P. R., Skea, J., Calvo Buendia, E.,
Masson-Delmotte, V., Pörtner, H.-O., Roberts, D. C., Zhai, P., Slade, R.,
Connors, S., van Diemen, R., Ferrat, M., Haughey, E., Luz, S., Neogi, S., Pathak, M., Petzold, J., Portugal Pereira, J., Vyas, P., Huntley, E., Kissick, L., Belkacemi, M., and Malley, J., ISBN 978-92-9169-154-8, https://www.ipcc.ch/srccl/chapter/summary-for-policymakers/ (last access: 14 February 2022), 2020.
Jakimavičius, D., Kriaučiūnienė, J., and Šarauskienė,
D.: Impact of climate change on the Curonian Lagoon water balance components, salinity and water temperature in the 21st century, Oceanologia, 60, 378–389, 2018.
Kanoshina, I., Lips, U., and Leppänen, J.-M.: The influence of weather
conditions (temperature and wind) on cyanobacterial bloom development in the
Gulf of Finland (Baltic Sea), Harmful Algae, 2, 29–41,
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1568-9883(02)00085-9, 2003.
Keevallik, S. and Soomere, T.: Regime shifts in the surface-level average
air flow over the Gulf of Finland during 1981–2010, Proc. Est. Acad. Sci.,
63, 428–437, https://doi.org/10.3176/proc.2014.4.08, 2014.
Kikas, V. and Lips, U.: Upwelling characteristics in the Gulf of Finland
(Baltic Sea) as revealed by Ferrybox measurements in 2007–2013, Ocean Sci.,
12, 843–859, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-12-843-2016, 2016.
Kniebusch, M., Meier, H. E. M., Neumann, T., and Börgel, F.: Temperature
variability of the Baltic Sea since 1850 in model simulations and attribution to atmospheric forcing, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 124, 4168–4187, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018jc013948, 2019a.
Kniebusch, M., Meier, H. E. M., and Radtke, H.: Changing salinity gradients in the Baltic Sea as a consequence of altered freshwater budgets, Geophys. Res. Lett., 46, 9739–9747, 2019b.
Köster, F. W., Huwer, B., Hinrichsen, H.-H., Neumann, V., Makarchouk,
A., Eero, M., von Dewitz, B., Hüssy, K., Tomkiewicz, J., Margonski, P., Temming, A., Hermann, J. P., Oesterwind, D., Dierking, J., Kotterba, P., and Plikshs, M.: Eastern Baltic cod recruitment revisited – dynamics and impacting factors, ICES J. Mar. Sci., 74, 3–19, 2017.
Laakso, L., Mikkonen, S., Drebs, A., Karjalainen, A., Pirinen, P., and Alenius, P.: 100 years of atmospheric and marine observations at the Finnish
Utö Island in the Baltic Sea, Ocean Sci. 14, 617–632,
https://doi.org/10.5194/os-14-617-2018, 2018.
Laanearu, J., Lips, U., and Lundberg, P.: On the application of hydraulic
theory to the deep-water flow through the Irbe Strait, J. Mar. Syst, 25,
323–332, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0924-7963(00)00025-7, 2000.
Laine, A. O., Andersin, A.-B., Leiniö, S., and Zuur, A. F.: Stratification-induced hypoxia as a structuring factor of macrozoobenthos in
the open Gulf of Finland (Baltic Sea), J. Sea Res., 57, 65–77,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seares.2006.08.003, 2007.
Lehmann, A. and Hinrichsen, H.-H.: On the thermohaline variability of the
Baltic Sea, J. Mar. Syst., 25, 333–357, 2000.
Lehmann, A. and Post, P.: Variability of atmospheric circulation patterns
associated with large volume changes of the Baltic Sea, Adv. Sci. Res., 12, 219–225, https://doi.org/10.5194/asr-12-219-2015, 2015.
Lehmann, A., Krauss, W., and Hinrichsen, H.-H.: Effects of remote and local
atmospheric forcing on circulation and upwelling in the Baltic Sea, Tellus A,
54, 299–316, 2002.
Lehmann, A., Getzlaff, K., and Harlaß, J.: Detailed assessment of climate variability on the Baltic Sea area for the period 1958 to 2009, Clim. Res., 46, 185–196, 2011.
Lehmann, A., Myrberg, K., and Höflich, K.: A statistical approach to coastal upwelling in the Baltic Sea based on the analysis of satellite data
for 1990–2009, Oceanologia, 54, 369–393, 2012.
Lehmann, A., Höflich, K., Post, P., and Myrberg, K.: Pathways of deep
cyclones associated with large volume changes (LVCs) and major Baltic inflows (MBIs), J. Mar. Syst., 167, 11–18, 2017.
Lehtoranta, J., Savchuk, O. P., Elken, J., Dahlbo, K., Kuosa, H., Raateoja,
M., Kauppila, P., Räike, A., and Pitkänen, H.: Atmospheric forcing controlling inter-annual nutrient dynamics in the open Gulf of Finland, J. Mar. Syst., 171, 4–20, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2017.02.001, 2017.
Leppäranta M. and Myrberg, K.: Physical Oceanography of the Baltic Sea,
Springer-Verlag, 378 pp., ISBN 978-3-540-79702-9, 2009.
Lessin, G., Raudsepp, U., and Stips, A.: Modelling the Influence of Major
Baltic Inflows on Near-Bottom Conditions at the Entrance of the Gulf of Finland, PLoS One, 9, e112881, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0112881, 2014.
Liblik, T. and Lips, U.: Characteristics and variability of the vertical
thermohaline structure in the Gulf of Finland in summer, Boreal Environ. Res., 16A, 73–83, 2011.
Liblik, T. and Lips, U.: Variability of synoptic-scale quasi-stationary
thermohaline stratification patterns in the Gulf of Finland in summer 2009,
Ocean Sci., 8, 603–614, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-8-603-2012, 2012.
Liblik, T. and Lips, U.: Variability of pycnoclines in a three-layer, large
estuary: the Gulf of Finland, Boreal Environ. Res., 22, 27–47, 2017.
Liblik, T. and Lips, U.: Stratification has strengthened in the Baltic Sea
– An analysis of 35 years of observational data, Front. Earth Sci., 7, 174, https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2019.00174, 2019.
Liblik, T., Laanemets, J., Raudsepp, U., Elken, J., and Suhhova, I.: Estuarine circulation reversals and related rapid changes in winter near-bottom oxygen conditions in the Gulf of Finland, Baltic Sea, Ocean Sci., 9, 917–930, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-9-917-2013, 2013.
Liblik, T., Skudra, M., and Lips, U.: On the buoyant sub-surface salinity maxima in the Gulf of Riga, Oceanologia, 59, 113–128,
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.OCEANO.2016.10.001, 2017.
Liblik, T., Naumann, M., Alenius, P., Hansson, M., Lips, U., Nausch, G.,
Tuomi, L., Wesslander, K., Laanemets, J., and Viktorsson, L.: Propagation of
Impact of the Recent Major Baltic Inflows From the Eastern Gotland Basin to
the Gulf of Finland, Front. Mar. Sci., 5, 222, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2018.00222, 2018.
Lilover, M.-J., Lips, U., Laanearu, J., and Liljebladh, B.: Flow regime in
the Irbe Strait, Aquat. Sci., 60, 253–265, https://doi.org/10.1007/s000270050040, 1998.
Lilover, M.-J., Elken, J., Suhhova, I., and Liblik, T.: Observed flow variability along the thalweg, and on the coastal slopes of the Gulf of Finland, Baltic Sea, Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci., 195, 23–33, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2016.11.002, 2016.
Lips, I., Lips, U., and Liblik, T.: Consequences of coastal upwelling events
on physical and chemical patterns in the central Gulf of Finland (Baltic
Sea), Cont. Shelf Res., 29, 1836–1847, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csr.2009.06.010, 2009.
Lips, U., Kikas, V., Liblik, T., and Lips, I.: Multi-sensor in situ observations to resolve the sub-mesoscale features in the stratified Gulf of
Finland, Baltic Sea, Ocean Sci., 12, 715–732, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-12-715-2016,
2016a.
Lips, U., Zhurbas, V., Skudra, M., and Väli, G.: A numerical study of
circulation in the Gulf of Riga, Baltic Sea. Part I: Whole-basin gyres and
mean currents, Cont. Shelf Res., 112, 1–13, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CSR.2015.11.008,
2016b.
Lips, U., Zhurbas, V., Skudra, M., and Väli, G.: A numerical study of
circulation in the Gulf of Riga, Baltic Sea. Part II: Mesoscale features and
freshwater transport pathways, Cont. Shelf Res., 115, 44–52,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csr.2015.12.018, 2016c.
Lips, U., Laanemets, J., Lips, I., Liblik, T., Suhhova, I., and Suursaar, Ü.: Wind-driven residual circulation and related oxygen and nutrient
dynamics in the Gulf of Finland (Baltic Sea) in winter, Estuar. Coast. Shelf
Sci., 195, 4–15, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ECSS.2016.10.006, 2017.
Maljutenko, I. and Raudsepp, U.: Long-term mean, interannual and seasonal
circulation in the Gulf of Finland – The wide salt wedge estuary or gulf
type ROFI, J. Mar. Syst., 195, 1–19, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JMARSYS.2019.03.004, 2019.
Marmefelt, E. and Omstedt, A.: Deep water properties in the Gulf of Bothnia, Cont. Shelf Res., 13, 169–187, 1993.
Matthäus, W. and Franck, H.: Characteristics of major Baltic inflows: A
statistical analysis, Cont. Shelf Res., 12, 1375–1400, 1992.
Matthäus, W. and Schinke, H.: Mean atmospheric circulation patterns
associated with major Baltic inflows, Deutsch. Hydrograph. Z., 46, 321–339, 1994.
Matthäus, W., Nehring D., Feistel, R., Nausch, G., Mohrholz, V., and
Lass, H. U.: The inflow of highly saline water into the Baltic Sea. In State
and Evolution of the Baltic Sea, 1952–2005: A detailed 50-year survey of
meteorology and climate, physics, chemistry, biology and marine environment,
Wiley-Interscience, 265–309, 2008.
Matulla, C., Schöner, W., Alexandersson, H., von Storch, H., and Wang, X. L.: European storminess: Late nineteenth century to present, Clim. Dynam., 31, 125–130, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-007-0333-y, 2008.
Meier, H. E. M.: Modeling the pathways and ages of inflowing salt- and
freshwater in the Baltic Sea, Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci., 74, 610–627, 2007.
Meier, H. E. M, and Döscher, R.: Simulated water and heat cycles of the
Baltic Sea using a 3D coupled atmosphere-ice-ocean model, Boreal Environ. Res., 7, 327–334, 2002.
Meier, H. E. M. and Kauker, F.: Modeling decadal variability of the Baltic Sea: 2. Role of freshwater inflow and large-scale atmospheric circulation for salinity, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 3368, https://doi.org/10.1029/2003JC001799, 2003.
Meier, H. E. ., Höglund, A., Almroth-Rosell, E., and Eilola, K.: Impact
of accelerated future global mean sea level rise on hypoxia in the Baltic
Sea, Clim. Dynam., 49, 163–172, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-016-3333-y, 2017.
Meier, H. E. M., Eilola, K., Almroth-Rosell, E., Schimanke, S., Kniebusch, M., Höglund, A., Pemberton, P., Liu, Y., Väli, G., and Saraiva, S.:
Disentangling the impact of nutrient load and climate changes on Baltic Sea
hypoxia and eutrophication since 1850, Clim. Dynam., 53, 1145–1166, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-018-4296-y, 2019a.
Meier, H. E. M., Eilola, K., Almroth-Rosell, E., Schimanke, S., Kniebusch, M., Höglund, A., Pemberton, P., Liu, Y., Väli, G., and Saraiva, S.:
Correction to: Disentangling the impact of nutrient load and climate changes
on Baltic Sea hypoxia and eutrophication since 1850, Clim. Dynam., 53, 1167–1169, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-018-4483-x, 2019b.
Merkouriadi, I. and Leppäranta, M.: Long-term analysis of hydrography
and sea-ice data in Tvärminne, Gulf of Finland, Baltic Sea, Climatic Change, 124, 849–859, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-014-1130-3, 2014.
Mikulski, Z.: Inflow from drainage basin, in Water Balance of the Baltic
Sea-Baltic Sea Environment Proceedings 16, Baltic Mar. Environ. Prot. Comm., Helsinki, Finland, 24–34, ISSN 0357-2994, https://helcom.fi/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/BSEP16.pdf (last access: 14 February 2022), 1986.
Mohrholz, V.: Major Baltic Inflow Statistics – Revised, Front. Mar. Sci., 5, 384, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2018.00384, 2018.
Mohrholz, V., Naumann, M., Nausch, G., Krüger, S., and Gräwe, U.: Fresh oxygen for the Baltic Sea – An exceptional saline inflow after a decade of stagnation, J. Mar. Syst. 148, 152–166, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2015.03.005, 2015.
Myrberg, K.: Analysing and modelling the physical processes of the Gulf of
Finland in the Baltic Sea, Monographs of the Boreal Environment Research,
10, PhD Thesis, University of Helsinki, Faculty of Science, 50 pp. + 5 articles Finnish Institute of Marine Research, Helsinki, https://helda.helsinki.fi/bitstream/handle/10138/39317/BERMon_10.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y (last access: 14 February 2022), 1998.
Myrberg, K. and Andrejev, O.: Main upwelling regions in the Baltic Sea – a
statistical analysis based on three-dimensional modelling, Boreal Environ. Res., 8, 97–112, 2003.
Myrberg, K. and Andrejev O.: Modelling of the circulation, water exchange
and water age properties of the Gulf of Bothnia, Oceanologia, 48, 55–74, 2006.
Naumann, M., Mohrholz, V., and Waniek, J. J.: Water Exchange and conditions
in the Deep Basins, HELCOM Balt. Sea Environ, Fact Sheets, Online, http://www.helcom.fi/baltic-sea-trends/environment-fact-sheets/ (last access: 14 February 2022), 2018.
Nehring, D. and Matthäus, W.: Current trends in hydrographic and chemical parameters and eutrophication in the Baltic Sea, Internationale Revue der gesamten Hydrobiologie und Hydrographie, 76, 297–316, 1991.
Neumann, T., Radtke, H., and Seifert, T. : On the importance of Major Baltic
Inflows for oxygenation of the central Baltic Sea, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 122, 1090–1101, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JC012525, 2017.
Nielsen, M. H.: Evidence for internal hydraulic control in the northern Øresund, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 14055–14068, 2001.
Nilsson, J., Andersson, J., Karås, P., and Sandström, O.:
Recruitment failure and decreasing catches of perch (Perca fluviatilis L.)
and pike (Esox lucius L.) in the coastal waters of southeast Sweden, Boreal
Environ. Res., 9, 295–306, 2004.
Nissling, A. and Westin, L.: Egg buoyancy of Baltic cod (Gadus morhua) and its implication for cod stock fluctuations in the Baltic, Mar. Biol., 111, 33–35, 1991.
Nissling, A. and Westin, L.: Salinity requirements for successful spawning of Baltic and Belt Sea cod and the potential for cod stock interactions in the Baltic Sea, Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser., 152, 261–271, 1997.
Nissling, A., Kryvi, H., and Vallin, L.: Variation in egg buoayancy of Baltic cod Gadus morhua and its implications for egg survival in prevailing conditions in the Baltic Sea, Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser., 110, 67–74, 1994.
Omstedt, A., Elken, J., Lehmann, A., and Piechura, J.: Knowledge of the
Baltic Sea physics gained during the BALTEX and related programmes, Prog.
Oceanogr., 63, 1–28, 2004.
Omstedt, A., Elken, J., Lehmann, A., Leppäranta, M., Meier, H. E. M., Myrberg, K., and Rutgersson, A.: Progress in physical oceanography of the
Baltic Sea during the 2003–2014 period, Prog. Oceanogr., 128, 139–171, 2014.
Otsmann, M., Suursaar, Ü., and Kullas, T.: The oscillatory nature of the
flows in the system of straits and small semi-enclosed basins of the Baltic
Sea, Cont. Shelf Res., 21, 1577–1603, 2001.
Pinto, J. G. and Raible, C. C.: Past and recent changes in the North Atlantic oscillation, WIREs Clim. Change, 3, 79–90, https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.150, 2012.
Post, P., and Lehmann, A.: Assessment of long time series of atmospheric
circulation patterns forcing large volume changes and major inflows to the
Baltic Sea, in: International Baltic Earth Secretariat Publication No. 9,
Conference Proceedings, 28–29, https://baltic.earth/imperia/md/assets/baltic_earth/baltic_earth/baltic_earth/ibesp_no9_jun2016_nidaconf.pdf (last access: 14 February 2022), 2016.
Raateoja, M.: Deep-water oxygen conditions in the Bothnian Sea, Boreal Environ. Res., 18, 235–249, 2013.
Radtke, H., Brunnabend, S.-E., Gräwe, U., and Meier, H. E. M.: Investigating interdecadal salinity changes in the Baltic Sea in a 1850–2008 hindcast simulation, Clim. Past, 16, 1617–1642,
https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-16-1617-2020, 2020.
Rak, D.: The inflow in the Baltic Proper as recorded in January–February 2015, Oceanologia, 58, 241–247, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceano.2016.04.001, 2016.
Raudsepp, U.: Interannual and seasonal termperature and salinity variations
in the Gulf of Riga and corresponding saline water inflow from the Baltic
Proper, Nord. Hydrol., 32, 135–160, 2001.
Reissmann, J. H., Burchard, H., Feistel,R., Hagen, E., Lass, H. U., Mohrholz,
V., Nausch, G., Umlauf, L., and Wiecczorek, G.: Vertical mixing in the Baltic Sea and consequences for eutrophication a review, Prog. Oceanogr., 82, 47–80, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2007.10.004, 2009.
Rózyński, G., Bielecka, M., Margoński, P., Psuty, I., Szymanek, L., Chubarenko, B., Esiukova, E., Domnin, D., Domnina, A., and Pilipchuk, V.: The physio-geographical background and ecology of the Vistula Lagoon, in: Coastal Lagoons in Europe – Integrated Water Resource Strategies, edited by: Lillebø, A. I., Stålnacke, P., and Gooch, G. D., IWA Publishing, 256 pp., ISBN 9781780406282, 2018.
Ruzzante, D. E., Mariani, S., Bekkevold, D., André, C., Mosegaard, H., Clausen, L. A. W., Dahlgren, T. G., Hutchinson, W. F., Hatfield, E. M. C., Torstensen, E., Brigham, J., Simmonds, E. J., Laikre, L., Larsson, L. C., Stet, R. J. M., Ryman, N., and Carvalho, G. R.: Biocompexity in a high migratory pelagic marine fish, Atlantic herring, P. Roy. Soc. B, 273, 1459–1464, https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2005.3463, 2006.
Saraiva, S., Meier, H. E. M., Andersson, H. C., Höglund, A., Dieterich, C., Gröger, M., Hordoir, R., and Eilola, K.: Uncertainties in projections of the Baltic Sea ecosystem driven by an ensemble of global climate models,
Front. Earth Sci., 6, 244, https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2018.00244, 2019.
Schimanke, S. and Meier, H. E. M.: Decadal to centennial variability of salinity in the Baltic Sea, J. Climate, 29, 7173–7188, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-15-0443.1, 2016.
Schimanke, S., Dieterich, C., and Meier, H. E. M.: An algorithm based on SLP-fluctuations to identify major Baltic inflow events, Tellus A, 66, 23452,
https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusa.v66.23452, 2014.
Schinke, H. and Matthäus, W.: On the causes of major Baltic inflows– an analysis of long time series, Cont. Shelf Res., 18, 67–97, 1998.
Skudra, M. and Lips, U.: Characteristics and inter-annual changes in temperature, salinity and density distributions in the Gulf of Riga,
Oceanologia, 59, 37–48, 2017.
Soomere, T., Myrberg, K., Leppäranta, M., and Nekrasov, A.: Progress in
knowledge of the physical oceanography of the Gulf of Finland: a review for 1997–2007, Oceanologia, 50, 287–362, 2008.
Soomere, T., Bishop, S. R., Viska, M., and Räämet, A.: An abrupt change in winds that may radically affect the coasts and deep sections of the Baltic Sea, Clim. Res., 62, 163–171, https://doi.org/10.3354/cr01269, 2015.
Soosaar, E., Maljutenko, I., Raudsepp, U., and Elken, J.: An investigation of anticyclonic circulation in the southern Gulf of Riga during spring period, Cont. Shelf Res., 78, 75–84, 2014.
Soosaar, E., Maljutenko, I., Uiboupin, R., Skudra, M., and Raudsepp, U.: River bulge evolution and dynamics in a non-tidal sea – Daugava River plume in the Gulf of Riga, Baltic Sea, Ocean Sci., 12, 417–432, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-12-417-2016, 2016.
Stepanova, N. B.: Vertical structure and seasonal evolution of the cold intermediate layer in the Baltic Proper, Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci., 195,
34–40, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2017.05.011, 2017.
Stipa, T., Tamminen, T., and Seppälä, J.: On the creation and
maintenance of startification in the Gulf of Riga, J. Mar. Syst., 23, 27–49, 1999.
Stoicescu, S.-T., Lips, U., and Liblik, T.: Assessment of Eutrophication
Status Based on Sub-Surface Oxygen Conditions in the Gulf of Finland (Baltic
Sea), Front. Mar. Sci., 6, 54, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2019.00054, 2019.
Stramska, M. and Aniskiewicz, P.: Satellite Remote Sensing Signatures of the Major Baltic Inflows, Remote Sens., 11, 954, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11080954, 2019.
Suhhova, I., Liblik, T., Lilover, M.-J., and Lips, U.: A descriptive analysis of the linkage between the vertical stratification and current oscillations in the Gulf of Finland, Boreal Environ. Res., 23, 83–103, 2018.
Svedäng, H., Righton, D., and Jonsson, P.: Migratory behavior of Atlantic cod Gadus morhua: natal homing is the prime stock separating mechanism, Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser., 345, 1–12, 2007.
Tuomi, L., Miettunen, E., Alenius, P., and Myrberg, K.: Evaluating hydrography, circulation and transport in a coastal archipelago using a high-resolution 3D hydrodynamic model, J. Mar. Syst., 180, 2–36, 2018.
Väli, G., Meier, H. E. M., and Elken, J.: Simulated halocline variability in the Baltic Sea and its impact on hypoxia during 1961–2007, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 118, 6982–7000, https://doi.org/10.1002/2013JC009192, 2013.
Vankevich, R. E., Sofina, E. V., Eremina, T. E., Ryabchenko, V. A., Molchanov, M. S., and Isaev, A. V.: Effects of lateral processes on the seasonal water stratification of the Gulf of Finland: 3-D NEMO-based model study, Ocean Sci., 12, 987–1001, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-12-987-2016, 2016.
Vuorinen, I., Hänninen, J., Rajasilta, M., Laine, P., Eklund, J.,
Montesino-Pouzols, F., Corona, F., Junker, K., Meier, H. E. M., and Dippner,
J. W.: Scenario simulations of future salinity and Ecological Consequences in
the Baltic Sea and adjacent North Sea areas – implications for environmental
monitoring, Ecol. Indicat., 50, 196–205, 2015.
Wallace, J. M. and Gutzler, D. S.: Teleconnections in the geopotential height
field during the northern hemisphere winter, Mon. Weather Rev., 109, 784–812, 1981.
Waltz, M. A., Befort, D. J., Kirchner-Bossi, N. O., Ulbrich, U., and Leckebusch, G. C.: Modelling serial clustering and intern-annual variability
of European winter windstorms based on large-scale drivers, Int. J. Climatol., 38, 3044–3057, 2018.
Weise, R., Dailidiene, I., Hünicke, B., Kahma, K., Madsen, K., Omstedt,
A., Parnell, K., Schöne, T., Soomere, T., Zhang, W., and Zorita, E.: Sea
level dynamics and coastal erosion in the Baltic Sea region, Earth Syst. Dynam., 12, 871–898, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-12-871-2021, 2021.
Wieland, K. and Jarre-Teichmann, A.: Prediction of vertical distribution and ambient development temperature of Baltic cod, Gadus morhua L, eggs, Fish. Oceanogr., 6, 172–176, 1997.
Wieland, K., Waller, U., and Schnack, D.: Development of Baltic cod eggs at
different levels of temperature and oxygen content, Dana, 10, 163–177, 1994.
Winsor, P., Rodhe, J., and Omstedt, A.: Baltic Sea ocean climate: an analysis
of 100 yr of hydrographic data with focus on the freshwater budget, Clim.
Res., 18, 5–15, 2001.
Winsor, P., Rodhe, J., and Omstedt, A.: Erratum: Baltic Sea ocean climate:
an analysis of 100 yr of hydrographical data with focus on the freshwater
budget, Clim. Res., 25, 183, 2003.
Zubiate, L., McDermott, F., Sweeney, C., and O'Malley, M.: Spatial variability in winter NAO-wind speed relationships in western Europe linked to concomitant states of the East Atlantic and Scandinavian patterns, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 143, 552–562, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.2943, 2016.
Short summary
The salinity in the Baltic Sea is not only an important topic for physical oceanography as such, but it also integrates the complete water and energy cycle. It is a primary external driver controlling ecosystem dynamics of the Baltic Sea. The long-term dynamics are controlled by river runoff, net precipitation, and the water mass exchange between the North Sea and Baltic Sea. On shorter timescales, the ephemeral atmospheric conditions drive a very complex and highly variable salinity regime.
The salinity in the Baltic Sea is not only an important topic for physical oceanography as such,...
Special issue
Altmetrics
Final-revised paper
Preprint